How should states respond to threats of nuclear coercion, such as those that come from North Korea and Pakistan?It is difficult to identify a pragmatic policy course: if a state don’t respond, it erodes deterrence; if the response is too punitive, it risks escalation. For a variety of reasons, including politics and psychology, policymakers and military strategists tend to gravitate to punitive approaches. Yet most of these options, if exercised alone, increase the risks of conflict escalation and deterrence failure. One way to mitigate such risk is through strategies that combine punitive threats with reassurance and incentives for improved relations.

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